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The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 58:M30-M36 (2003)
© 2003 The Gerontological Society of America

Editorial: Hot Topics in Geriatrics

John E. Morley

GRECC, VA Medical Center and Division of Geriatric Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri.

NO topic in aging is perhaps more important than the answer to the question of why we age. Unfortunately, as has been chronicled in the Journals, this is not a process with a simple answer, except in the minds of the pseudoscientific antiaging industry (1–3). Obviously, our genetic makeup plays a major role in our aging process. This has been demonstrated not only in genetic manipulations in worms (4,5) but also in the studies in centenarians and others suggesting that certain genes, such as apolipoprotein E, can be either beneficial or deleterious depending on the isoform we inherit (6–14). Thus it remains as true today as ever that choosing the right parents before birth remains the best method of ensuring successful aging. However, the genomic revolution now places us in the position that during this century we will certainly see genomic manipulations in humans in an attempt to prolong or improve the quality of life (15). These genetic manipulations will be paralleled by computer enhancements of function, such as retinal implants for visual impairment (16), eventually leading to the bionic person becoming a reality for all of us aging individuals! The ethical implications of these two areas over this century are mind boggling, as is the need for the geriatrician to keep up with these advances, so as to allow our patients optimal medical care as they become a reality.

At a more mundane level, caloric restriction remains a hot topic for life extension (17–20). The Biosphere 2 experiment suggests that caloric restriction in humans has the same biochemical effects that are seen in animals (21). The National Institute on Aging is sponsoring a study of caloric restriction in humans (22), and there is a search for drugs that will mimic the effects of caloric restriction (23). Despite this enthusiasm, your editor remains highly skeptical of this approach. In particular, these are the potential deleterious effects of caloric restriction on bone and muscle in older persons (24,25) and the devastating effects of protein energy malnutrition associated with the anorexia of aging (26–29). Thus, I believe, as so solidly promoted in the pages of the Journal, exercise will prove to be the appropriate way to improve function and quality of life, and not caloric restriction (30–36).

For geriatricians, a focus on functional decline and its management remains a central issue. Not only does functional disability predict mortality and nursing home placement, but also poor function is associated with increased medical costs (37–39). Our understanding of the causes of functional deterioration has been advanced by the work of Linda Fried and her colleagues in defining frailty (40–42). These studies and those of others (43–50) have begun to define the interaction of disease and aging in leading to functional decline. The importance of lower limb strength in the maintenance of mobility has been recognized (51–58). There is an increased awareness of the role of cytokines (59–62), vitamin D (63), and testosterone deficiency (64–69) in the pathogenesis of sarcopenia, frailty, and functional decline.

The role of disease, and particularly cardiovascular disease, in functional deterioration remains central to the understanding of the aging process (68–75). Elevated levels of interleukin-6 predict cardiovascular mortality (76), and n-3 fatty acids reduce death (77). This supports the role of eating fish in promoting healthy aging and longevity (78). There has been increasing evidence that the use of statins to lower cholesterol is important in secondary prevention to promote plaque stabilization (78–80). However, there is evidence that statins are underused by older persons (81,82). This conundrum is perhaps explained by the continued finding that low cholesterol predicts mortality in older persons (83), possibly because it is a marker of protein energy undernutrition (84–86). The use of warfarin in older persons has been shown to be important in decreasing stroke (87) and also can decrease deep vein thrombosis, when used short term following hip arthroplasty (88), and yet warfarin remains underused in the long-term care setting (89).

Perhaps most important are the continued reminders that aggressive acute therapy for cardiovascular disease produces excellent outcomes in older persons. Thus persons over 75 years of age have excellent outcomes with coronary artery revascularization, carotid endarterectomy, and blood transfusion following myocardial infarction (90–93). Beta blockade produces excellent results and is underused in older persons (81).

Understanding of the basic pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease is moving forward rapidly (94–97). Although a clear relationship of plaques and beta-amyloid production to cognitive impairment remains difficult to demonstrate (98,99), animal studies have shown a solid association between cognitive impairment and beta-amyloid overproduction (100–109). Antisense to beta-amyloid m-RNA has been shown to cross the blood–brain barrier and improve memory, suggesting a role for this and other therapies that lower beta-amyloid production for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (110). Similarly, altering amyloid precursor protein by decreasing the activity of gamma secretase enzymatic activity has major potential.

Clearly, Alzheimer's disease represents a number of different conditions loosely related by the development at the end stage of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. The close relationship of Alzheimer's disease and atherosclerosis was highlighted by the finding that elevated homocysteine levels are associated with Alzheimer's disease (111). Brain activation as measured by magnetic resonance imaging predicts future memory deterioration (112). Alzheimer's disease has a close relationship to nutrition, with a high-fat diet being associated with an increased incidence and the disease itself leading to nutritional deficiencies (113). Statin use is associated with a lower prevalence of dementia (114).

The large amount of time necessary to appropriately feed persons with end-stage dementia has been highlighted in the Journal (115). Persons with Alzheimer's disease consume the majority of their food at breakfast (116). For this reason, classical meal delivery services for homebound elders do not meet their needs as they develop dementia (117). Socialization at meal times increases food intake (118) and decreases nutritional risk (119).

The importance of cognitive performance in executing physical tasks is becoming more recognized (120). Impaired motor performance is associated with temporal low atrophy as measured by computed tomography (121). Low cognitive performance in persons with comorbid disease is a key factor in functional impairment (122,123). Poor cognitive performance is a significant factor in the pathogenesis of multiple falls (124). Balance recovery is poorer in persons when they attempt to perform a cognitive task (125). The effect of hormones in improving cognitive function is controversial (126,127). In contrast, the effect of cobalamin replacement in deficient persons clearly enhances cognitive performance (128). Caregiver burden associated with behavioral disturbances of the demented person is a major reason for institutionalization of older persons with dementia (129).

Dysphoria is an extremely common finding in older persons (130). Depression has been shown to be a powerful factor in interacting with disease to produce increased morbidity and mortality (131–133). Resistance exercise has been shown to have a marked antidepressant effect (134). Bright light (10,000 lux) decreases depression in institutionalized elderly (135).

Since the time of King David (136), osteoporosis has been an important cause of morbidity and mortality in older persons, with extremely poor outcomes being associated with hip fracture (137–141). Despite this, osteoporosis is still rarely screened for in older persons (142) and is often not treated, even following a hip fracture (143,144). With the availability of once-a-week risedronate and alendronate, treatment of osteoporosis has become relatively easy. Intravenous infusions of zolendronic acid have the potential to become a treatment for osteoporosis that has to be given only once a year (145). Males also develop osteoporosis and have poorer outcomes than women when they fracture their hip. Bisphosphonates improve bone mineral density in men as well as women (146). Hip protection, when kept on, has been demonstrated to decrease hip fractures in older persons with multiple falls (147).

Polypharmacy remains a major problem in older persons (148–152). Its effects are compounded by the use of a variety of herbal medicines, many of which have no efficacy (153–155). The geriatrician consistently faces the difficult choice of whether or not a medicine will produce an overall improvement or a decline in function (156). This is particularly important in the area of chronic pain, where much evidence suggests that pain is undertreated in older persons (157,158). This occurs despite the fact that pain has been shown to be a significant independent risk factor for subsequent disability (159,160). Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents significantly improve exercise capacity and functional status in older persons (161,162).

Another area in which older persons often obtain inadequate care is in the prevention and treatment of pressure ulcers (163). A study of hospitalized older persons showed that the care to prevent and treat pressure ulcers was extremely poor (164). The PUSH instrument represents an approach to appropriate detection of those at risk for developing pressure ulcers (165).

Infectious diseases remain a major problem for older persons (166–171). Vaccinations against influenza and pneumonococcal pneumonia are excellent preventive strategies (172–174). With the recent anthrax epidemic in the United States, physicians are reminded that the older person is particularly vulnerable to small amounts of spores, requiring increased vigilance in our population against bioterrorism (175). The median age of persons with meninoencephalitis and muscle weakness caused by West Nile virus was 71 years, with the oldest patient being 95 years old (176). Being 75 years or older was an independent risk factor for death in persons infected with West Nile Virus. Atypical Norwegian scabies is often misdiagnosed in older nursing home residents (177).

Treatment of cancer in older persons is often less aggressive or different in older persons (178,179). Screening for cancer in older persons should depend, in part, on expected life expectancy (180). However, it has to be recognized that healthy persons in their eighties have a life expectancy for which cancer screening may be highly appropriate, whereas this would be less appropriate in frail elders with a high disease burden. Murphy and colleagues (181) have shown that older persons can make appropriate decisions when presented with the probability of benefit in terms of absolute risk reduction.

Recently, much interest has been developed in the appropriate approaches to end-of-life care. It is recognized that end of life can stretch over a period of up to 2 years prior to death. This was recognized by the development of Glidepaths, which suggest a different critical pathway for end-of-life care (182). The special needs of end-of-life care in persons with dementia was recently reviewed in the Journals (183). Clearly, careful discussion concerning the needs of older persons at the end of life is a cornerstone to appropriate care at this time (184,185). It is clear that many older persons show remarkable adaptability to the trials of the aging process, allowing them to function happily under extremely adverse circumstances (186,187). Physicians are often extremely poor judges of the older person's perception of his or her quality of life.

Despite the negative view of geriatrics taken recently by Kane (188), so ably refuted by the commentators on his article (189–197), geriatrics has had enormous success in developing systems to improve the care of the older person. These have been based on the principles of continuous quality of improvement (198–201) and a focus on function (202,203). A multicenter study confirmed the utility of geriatric evaluation and management units (204). Multidisciplinary teams (205) and a delirium intensive care unit (206) markedly improve the outcomes of persons with delirium. Finally, there is increasing evidence that health promotion and preventive care can result in compression of morbidity (172,207).


   Acknowledgments
 
Address correspondence to John E. Morley, MB, BCh, Division of Geriatric Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, 1402 S. Grand Boulevard, M238, St. Louis, MO 63104. E-mail: morley{at}slu.edu


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