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Diabetes Mellitus as a Risk Factor for Hip Fracture in Mexican American Older Adults

^a Division of Rehabilitation Sciences, School of Allied Health Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston
^b Sealy Center on Aging, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston
^c Division of Geriatrics, Department of Medicine, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston
^d Department of Preventive Medicine and Community Health, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston

Kenneth J. Ottenbacher, UTMB, 301 University Blvd., Route 1137, Galveston, TX 77555-1137 E-mail: Kottenba{at}utmb.edu.

	Abstract

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Background. Hip fracture in older adults is a significant medical, social, and economic concern to society. Little is known regarding diabetes as a risk factor for hip fracture in the Mexican American population. The objective of this study was to examine diabetes and other potential risk factors for hip fracture in a sample of community-dwelling, older, Mexican American adults.

Methods. The study was a prospective cohort design involving the Hispanic Established Population for the Epidemiologic Study of the Elderly, a longitudinal study involving a weighted probability sample of Mexican American adults (>65 years) living in the southwestern United States. Included in the study were 3050 older Mexican American subjects who were originally interviewed and tested at baseline and then followed with reassessment at 2, 5, and 7 years. Incidence of hip fracture was examined for subjects over 7-year follow-up.

Results. At baseline, 690 subjects were identified with diabetes. One hundred and thirty-four subjects experienced a first-time hip fracture during follow-up. Cox proportional hazard regression revealed an increased hazard ratio for hip fracture in subjects with diabetes compared to those without diabetes (hazard ratio = 1.57, 95% confidence interval [CI₉₅] = 1.03, 2.39, p < .04) when adjusted for age, body mass index, smoking, and previous stroke. The hazard ratio for Mexican Americans taking insulin was 2.84 (CI₉₅ = 1.49, 5.43, p < .002) when adjusted for covariates.

Conclusions. We found diabetes was associated with increased risk for a hip fracture in older Mexican Americans, particularly subjects taking insulin. Diabetes has not previously been considered a risk factor for hip fracture in older adults. The high incidence of type 2 diabetes in the Mexican American population highlights the need for increased research on risk factors in this ethnic group.

HIP fracture is among the most common reasons for hospitalization and disability among older Americans ^(1)(2)(3)(4). More than 300,000 adults in the United States experience a hip fracture each year ⁽⁴⁾. The incidence of hip fractures world-wide is projected to increase by 250% in the next 25 years ⁽⁵⁾. In addition to pain, disability, and mortality ⁽⁶⁾, hip fracture is significantly related to hospital costs ⁽⁷⁾⁽⁸⁾. Sloan and colleagues ⁽⁹⁾ reported a 167% increase in Medicare payments for patients with hip fracture from 1994 through 1998. The cost of inpatient hospital care for persons with hip fracture in the United States is more than $6 billon per year and is expected to reach $16 billon by 2040 as the population ages ⁽¹⁰⁾.

Risk factors for hip fracture include those related to falls and decreased bone density. Previous research has identified age, female gender, history of stroke, limitations in activities of daily living, decreased mobility, smoking, and impaired visual function as risk factors ^(1)(3)(6)(7). Other variables associated with a lower risk of hip fracture include later age at menopause for women, use of thaizide, increased body mass index, and greater than average height and muscle strength ^{(1)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)}. Some regional and ethnic variations have been reported, with higher rates of hip fracture in the southeastern United States and for non-Hispanic white women ⁽¹¹⁾.

The prognosis for older adults who experience a hip fracture is not positive ⁽³⁾. Twenty percent die in the year following hip fracture, and 25% of those who survive require a higher level of long-term care ⁽³⁾. Those persons who do return to the community after a hip fracture have greater difficulty with activities of daily living, and only 60% will recover their prefracture walking ability by 6 months ^(6)(7)(8)(9). Consequently, there is a need to improve health and functional outcomes for this population. An important step in understanding and improving functional outcomes is being able to identify and adjust for baseline characteristics that influence morbidity and functional loss. This is particularly true for minority and disadvantaged populations, where little research on outcomes has been conducted. In particular, we were interested in outcomes related to hip fracture in Mexican American older adults. Our interest in studying this population was based on the following factors: (i) the incidence of type 2 diabetes in this population is known to be high ^(12)(13); (ii) recent studies in non-Hispanic whites have suggested that diabetes might be a risk factor for hip fracture in some older adults ⁽¹³⁾; and (iii) we had access to a large population-based sample of Mexican American older adults that included comprehensive longitudinal data on health status and outcome ⁽¹²⁾.

Diabetes mellitus has not been considered a significant risk factor for hip fracture in older adults ⁽¹³⁾. Researchers have reported inconsistent findings regarding bone density in persons with type 2 (adult onset) diabetes in comparison to control subjects ⁽¹⁴⁾, and few studies have examined the possible relation between diabetes and clinical outcomes of decreased bone density ^(15)(16). Two recent large-sample cohort studies reported diabetes as a risk factor for fractures, including hip facture, in older women ^(13)(17). These studies were limited to non-Hispanic white women, and the baseline response rate to the survey questionnaire in one of the studies was low (42%).

The prevalence of diabetes mellitus in the Hispanic population is high ⁽¹²⁾, and information regarding risk factors for hip fracture in the Hispanic population is limited. Espino and colleagues ⁽¹⁸⁾ examined the prevalence, incidence, and risk factors for hip fracture in community-dwelling, Mexican American older adults. They reported rates of 9.1 fractures per 1000 person-years for Mexican American women and 4.8 per 1000 person-years for Mexican American men. The hip fracture rates for the general population are 12.8 hip fractures per 1000 person-years for women and approximately 6.0 per 1000 person-years for men ⁽¹⁹⁾. Risk factors identified by Espino and colleagues ⁽¹⁸⁾ included age, female gender, living alone, previous stroke, and limitations in activities of daily living. Diabetes was not examined as an independent risk factor in this investigation.

Given the prevalence of diabetes in the Hispanic population and the lack of previous research examining hip fracture in this ethnic group, we conducted a study examining whether diabetes was a risk factor for hip fracture in a large area probability sample of Mexican American older adults. Specifically, we examined whether diabetes was a risk factor for hip fracture after controlling for age, gender, body mass index (BMI), ever smoked, previous stroke, lower extremity functional ability, and distance vision.

	Methods

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Sample
Data are from the Hispanic Established Population for the Epidemiologic Study of the Elderly (H-EPESE) ⁽²⁰⁾. The H-EPESE is an ongoing National Institute on Aging funded community-based study of 3050 older Mexican Americans. Mexican American subjects aged 65 and older were selected by area probability sampling techniques that involved selection of counties, census tracts, and households. A full description of the rationale, methods, and subject characteristics can be found elsewhere ^(12)(20). The sample was designed to be representative of approximately 500,000 older Mexican Americans living in five southwestern states—Texas, California, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico. The present study includes 2884 subjects at baseline (690 people with diabetes and 2194 people who did not have diabetes—see detailed description below). Follow-up interviews were conducted 2 (n = 2439), 5 (n = 1979), and 7 years (n = 1686) after baseline assessment. All interviews were done in the subject's home and were conducted in either Spanish or English. A description of the interview protocol is available in previous publications ^(12)(20) and from the authors.

Diabetes
History of diabetes was assessed at the baseline interview. Subjects were asked if they ever had a physician diagnosis of diabetes. A total of 690 (23%) subjects reported a definite diagnosis of diabetes, 155 (5%) reported a borderline diagnosis of diabetes, and 2194 (72%) reported no history of diabetes. Subjects with a borderline diagnosis of diabetes were not included in the analysis. Subjects who reported using any medication during the baseline interview, including insulin, were requested to show the medication to the interviewer as a verification check. For the 690 subjects with a definite diagnosis of diabetes, 599 (87%) were taking medication for their diabetes, including 185 (27%) who were insulin-dependent.

Hip Fracture
Hip fracture was assessed over a 7-year follow-up period. Subjects were asked if they had a physician diagnosis of hip fracture since the last interview. At the 2-, 5-, and 7-year follow-up assessment interviews, 42, 48, and 44 first-time hip fractures were reported, respectively.

Covariates
Baseline sociodemographics included age and gender. Indicators of baseline health status were smoking history (ever smoked or nonsmoker), BMI (computed as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters), history of stroke (yes or no), a summary performance measure of lower body function, and a test of distant visual acuity. The summary performance measure is comprised of three lower-body activities, a timed 4-meter walk, rising from a chair five times, and a hierarchical standing balance task ^(21)(22). Using previously established criteria ⁽²³⁾, performance on each lower body activity was classified on a scale ranging from 0 to 4. When summed, the overall performance measure is scored from 0 to 12, where higher scores represent better lower-body functioning ⁽²³⁾. A modified Snellen test using directional Es assessed distant visual acuity ⁽²⁴⁾. Four visual categories were created and included subjects who were functionally blind (>20/200), severely impaired (>20/60 to 20/200), moderately impaired (>20/40 to 20/60), and those with adequate vision (20/40).

Statistical Analyses
We examined demographic variables for all patients using descriptive and univariate statistics for continuous variables and contingency tables (chi-square) for categorical variables. Chi-square analyses were used to test for differences between patients with diabetes (n = 690) and patients without diabetes (n = 2194) at the baseline assessment interview, and hip fracture (n = 134) versus no hip fracture (n = 1443) at the follow-up assessment interviews. Cox proportional hazard models ⁽²⁵⁾ in SAS (SAS Institute, Cary, NC) were used to estimate the hazard ratios (HRs) of hip fracture over 7 years by diabetes status at baseline interview, adjusting for relevant risk factors. We computed two Cox proportional hazard models. Model 1 examined the relationship between diabetes (definite diabetes vs absent) at baseline and new-onset hip fracture (present vs absent) at the three follow-up assessment interviews, adjusting for age, gender, smoking status, BMI, and history of stroke. Model 2 examined the relationship between diabetes (definite diabetes vs absent) at baseline and new-onset hip fracture at the three follow-up assessment interviews, adjusting for the covariates described above, and a summary performance measure of lower body function and a test for distant vision. The two Cox proportional hazard models were reanalyzed using patients with diabetes who take insulin (definite diabetes and insulin-dependent vs absent) as a predictor variable. Gender x diabetes and gender x insulin diabetes interaction terms were created and were included in both models.

A modified version of the Bonferroni correction was used to protect against type 1 errors in those cases where multiple univariate hypotheses were evaluated ⁽²⁶⁾. In cases where univariate comparisons were made between unequal samples, a t test based on Levene's test that does not assume equal variances was calculated ⁽²⁷⁾.

	Results

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The mean age of the sample at baseline was 71.8 years (SD = 5.7). The sample included 1671 (58%) women and 1213 (42%) men. Six hundred and ninety subjects (23%) reported a definite diagnosis of diabetes at baseline, and 185 (27%) of these were taking insulin. Table 1 contains basic sociodemographic characteristics for persons with and without diabetes who had complete data for all variables included in the analysis at baseline. Persons with diabetes at baseline were younger (t = 2.88, p < .004), had a greater BMI (t = 4.43, p < .0001, see Fig. 1), and were more likely to have had a stroke (² = 8.10, p < .0001).

View larger version (8K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. Percentage of subjects with diabetes by body mass index (BMI) category.

View larger version (11K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 2. Percentage of cases with and without diabetes who experienced a hip fracture over the 7-year follow-up period.

	Discussion

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Information on incidence and prevalence of hip fracture has been obtained primarily from the non-Hispanic white population ⁽²⁸⁾ and indicates the lifetime risk of hip fracture is about 18% in women and 6% in men ⁽⁴⁾. Hip fractures increase substantially with age: By 90 years, one-third of women and one-sixth of men will experience a hip fracture ^(29)(30).

Diabetes has not been considered a risk factor for hip fracture in older adults until recently ⁽¹³⁾. Adult-onset diabetes is generally associated with being overweight, and the protective effect of obesity against osteoporosis is presumed to reduce the risk of hip fracture ⁽⁵⁾⁽⁸⁾. Multiple studies have demonstrated the relationship between low bone mass and increased fracture risk, mainly in the non-Hispanic white population ^(1)(2)(3). Previous research, again in the non-Hispanic white population, has reported relatively normal bone mass in persons with type 2 diabetes ^(15)(16).

We found increased risk of hip fracture in older Mexican Americans with self-reported diabetes when compared to hip fracture rates in Mexican American subjects without diabetes. The hazard ratio for experiencing a hip fracture for Mexican Americans taking insulin was particularly high (HR = 2.84, CI₉₅ = 1.49, 3.43, p < .002) even when we controlled for factors normally associated with increased (or decreased) risk of hip fracture. These factors included age, gender, BMI, previous history of smoking, and previous stroke. The relationship remained statistically significant when possible explanatory variables were added to the models including summary lower extremity function and distance vision scores.

Why did the older Mexican Americans with diabetes have more hip fractures than subjects without diabetes? Many factors associated with diabetes could lead to an increase in falls and associated fractures. These include visual impairment related to diabetic retinopathy, diminished proprioception in the lower extremities, poor balance, and unsteady gait caused by diabetic neuropathy and/or peripheral vascular disease. Any combination of these factors might increase the risk of falls in older adults and subsequent hip fracture ⁽³¹⁾.

Type 1 diabetes has been associated with low bone density; however, most studies of type 2 diabetes have reported normal bone mass ^(14)(15). The importance of bone quality, however, is relatively unexamined in type 2 diabetes. The vascular changes associated with diabetes could, theoretically, have a negative impact on bone remodeling and, therefore, on bone quality. The combination of poor bone quality and frequent falls might increase the risk of fracture, independent of bone mass ⁽³²⁾.

Falling is a risk factor for hip fracture, and poor depth perception has been reported as an independent risk factor for lower extremity fractures ⁽³³⁾. There is a logical link between diabetic retinopathy, poor depth perception, falls, and fractures in persons with diabetes. Finally, failure to adequately manage glucose and medication levels in older persons taking insulin may also result in an increased risk of falls and subsequent fracture. These are not all the potential mediating mechanisms that link diabetes to increased risks of falls and hip fracture in Mexican American older adults, but they are areas where additional research is needed.

We consider these findings preliminary, but believe they strongly suggest the need for additional research on diabetes as a risk factor for hip fracture, with a particular need for increased research on risk factors in the Hispanic population. The importance of our findings is based on the following strengths of the current investigation. We collected longitudinal information from a large, well-defined sample representative, at baseline, of 500,000 Mexican Americans in the southwestern United States ^(12)(20). The reliability and consistency of the data collection procedures in the H-EPESE investigation are well-established ^(12)(18). Our sample included both men and women, whereas most previous studies on risk factors for hip fracture have focused on non-Hispanic white women. The H-EPESE sample represents a population (Mexican American) that is known to have a high rate of diabetes and related complications ^(12)(18), but has not been comprehensively studied. Relatively little is known regarding health disparities and risk factors associated with hip fracture in this population ⁽¹⁸⁾.

The limitations of the investigation include the fact that several key variables including hip fracture and diabetes were obtained by self-report. Previous researchers have reported good validity for diabetes self-reports confirmed by physician diagnosis ^(34)(35). Individuals in this community-dwelling sample should have good recall of a major health event associated with hospitalization, such as a hip fracture. Receiving a diagnosis of diabetes, however, is a less dramatic health event. As noted previously, if a subject reported using insulin or other medications, the interviewer requested the subject present those medications. Thus, there was some interviewer verification of the diabetes diagnosis for persons taking insulin or other diabetic medications. A large number of the subjects with diabetes at baseline (87%) reported taking some type of diabetic medication. Those participants identified as not having diabetes probably included some individuals with undiagnosed diabetes. This misclassification would tend to weaken any association between diabetes and fracture.

Insulin use can be considered as a marker for disease severity in subjects with diabetes. Duration of diabetes is also a potential marker for disease severity and a risk factor for hip fracture in this population. We did not have consistent information on duration of diabetes for the subjects in the H-EPESE sample, nor did we have any measure of glycemic control for the participating subjects.

This study highlights the need for a more aggressive focus on identifying and addressing risk factors for hip fracture in the Hispanic population. Our findings suggest that diabetes may potentially be a more significant risk factor in older Mexican Americans than in other ethnic or racial groups. Research is needed concerning how diabetes and its complications contribute to increased risk of hip fracture in all populations, but specifically in Mexican Americans. The results of this research must then be incorporated into diabetes education and prevention programs, particularly those aimed at the Mexican American population.

	Acknowledgments

 
This research was supported by Grants R01-AG10939, R01-AG17638, and P60-AG17231 from the Public Health Service, Department of Health and Human Services.

Received February 12, 2002

Accepted May 1, 2002

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